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Pectin

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Pecten_(biology)" title="Pecten (biology)">Pecten (biology)</a>, <a href="Pecten_oculi" title="Pecten oculi">Pecten oculi</a>, or <a href="Pecten_(bivalve)" title="Pecten (bivalve)">Pecten (bivalve)</a>.</div>

Pectin (<a href="Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: πηκτικός pēktikós: 'congealed' and 'curdled') is a <a href="Heteropolysaccharide" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteropolysaccharide">heteropolysaccharide</a>, a structural <a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> contained in the <a href="Cell_wall#Plant_cell_walls" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a> and <a href="Middle_lamella" title="Middle lamella">middle lamellae</a> of <a href="Terrestrial_plant" title="Terrestrial plant">terrestrial plants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Liddell-1">[1]</a> The principal chemical component of pectin is <a href="Galacturonic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Galacturonic acid">galacturonic acid</a> (a <a href="Sugar_acid" title="Sugar acid">sugar acid</a> derived from <a href="Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a>) which was isolated and described by <a href="Henri_Braconnot" title="Henri Braconnot">Henri Braconnot</a> in 1825.<a href="#cite_note-Braconnot-1825-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keppler-2006-3">[3]</a> Commercially produced pectin is a white-to-light-brown powder, produced from <a href="Citrus_fruit" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrus fruit">citrus fruits</a> for use as an edible <a href="Gelling_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelling agent">gelling agent</a>, especially in <a href="Jam" class="mw-redirect" title="Jam">jams</a> and jellies, dessert fillings, medications, and sweets; as a <a href="Stabilizer_(chemistry)#Food" title="Stabilizer (chemistry)">food stabiliser</a> in fruit juices and milk drinks;<a href="#cite_note-Gerlat-2000-4">[4]</a> and as a source of <a href="Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology">Biology</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_occurrence">Natural occurrence</h3></div>

Pears, apples, guavas, <a href="Quince" title="Quince">quince</a>, plums, gooseberries, and oranges and other citrus fruits contain large amounts of pectin, while soft fruits, like cherries, grapes, and strawberries, contain small amounts of pectin.

Typical levels of pectin in fresh fruits and vegetables are:

<ul><li><a href="Apples" class="mw-redirect" title="Apples">Apples</a>, 1–1.5%</li>

<li><a href="Apricot" title="Apricot">Apricots</a>, 1%</li>

<li><a href="Cherries" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherries">Cherries</a>, 0.4%</li>

<li><a href="Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">Oranges</a>, 0.5–3.5%</li>

<li>Carrots 1.4%</li>

<li><a href="Citrus" title="Citrus">Citrus</a> <a href="Peel_(fruit)" title="Peel (fruit)">peels</a>, 30%</li>

Pectin is composed of complex polysaccharides that are present in the primary cell walls of a plant, and are abundant in the green parts of terrestrial plants.<a href="#cite_note-Bidhendi-2020-6">[6]</a>

Pectin is the principal component of the <a href="Middle_lamella" title="Middle lamella">middle lamella</a>, where it binds cells. Pectin is deposited by exocytosis into the cell wall via vesicles produced in the <a href="Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Braidwood-2014-7">[7]</a> The amount, structure and chemical composition of pectin is different among plants, within a plant over time, and in various parts of a plant. Pectin is an important cell wall polysaccharide that allows primary cell wall extension and plant growth.<a href="#cite_note-Bidhendi-2016-8">[8]</a> During fruit <a href="Ripening" title="Ripening">ripening</a>, pectin is broken down by the <a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> <a href="Pectinase" title="Pectinase">pectinase</a> and <a href="Pectinesterase" title="Pectinesterase">pectinesterase</a>, in which process the fruit becomes softer as the middle lamellae break down and cells become separated from each other.<a href="#cite_note-Grierson-1986-9">[9]</a> A similar process of cell separation caused by the breakdown of pectin occurs in the <a href="Abscission_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Abscission zone">abscission zone</a> of the <a href="Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">petioles</a> of <a href="Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> plants at leaf fall.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_nutrition">Human nutrition</h3></div>

Pectin is a natural part of the human <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diet" class="extiw external" title="wikt:diet">diet</a>, but does not contribute significantly to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nutrition" class="extiw external" title="wikt:nutrition">nutrition</a>. The daily intake of pectin from fruits and vegetables can be estimated to be around 5 g if approximately 500 g of fruits and vegetables are consumed per day.

In human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble <a href="Dietary_fiber" title="Dietary fiber">dietary fiber</a>. In <a href="NOD_mice" title="NOD mice">non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice</a> pectin has been shown to increase the incidence of autoimmune type 1 diabetes.<a href="#cite_note-Toivonen-2014-10">[10]</a>

A study found that after consumption of fruit the concentration of <a href="Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> in the human body increased by as much as an order of magnitude due to the degradation of natural pectin (which is esterified with methanol) in the <a href="Large_intestine" title="Large intestine">colon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lindinger-1997-11">[11]</a>

Consumption of pectin has been shown to slightly (3–7%) reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels. The effect depends upon the source of pectin; apple and citrus pectins were more effective than orange pulp fibre pectin.<a href="#cite_note-Brouns-2012-12">[12]</a> The mechanism appears to be an increase of viscosity in the intestinal tract, leading to a reduced absorption of cholesterol from bile or food.<a href="#cite_note-Sriamornsak-2003-13">[13]</a> In the large intestine and colon, microorganisms degrade pectin and liberate <a href="Short-chain_fatty_acid" title="Short-chain fatty acid">short-chain fatty acids</a> that have a positive <a href="Prebiotic_(nutrition)" title="Prebiotic (nutrition)">prebiotic</a> effect.<a href="#cite_note-Gómez-2014-14">[14]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div>

Pectin has been observed to have some function in repairing the DNA of some types of plant seeds, usually desert plants.<a href="#cite_note-Huang-2004-15">[15]</a> Pectinaceous surface pellicles, which are rich in pectin, create a mucilage layer that holds in dew that helps the cell repair its DNA.<a href="#cite_note-Huang-2008-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h2></div>

Pectins, also known as pectic polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within the pectic group. Homogalacturonans are linear chains of α-(1–4)-linked <a href="D-Galacturonic_acid" title="D-Galacturonic acid">D-galacturonic acid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Complex_Carbohydrate_Research_Centre-17">[17]</a> Substituted galacturonans are characterised by the presence of saccharide appendant residues (such as D-<a href="Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a> or D-<a href="Apiose" title="Apiose">apiose</a> in the respective cases of xylogalacturonan and <a href="Apiogalacturonan" title="Apiogalacturonan">apiogalacturonan</a>) branching from a backbone of D-galacturonic acid residues.<a href="#cite_note-Complex_Carbohydrate_Research_Centre-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buchanan-2000-18">[18]</a> Rhamnogalacturonan I pectins (RG-I) contain a backbone of the repeating disaccharide: 4)-α-D-galacturonic acid-(1,2)-α-L-<a href="Rhamnose" title="Rhamnose">rhamnose</a>-(1. From many of the rhamnose residues, sidechains of various neutral sugars branch off. The neutral sugars are mainly D-<a href="Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a>, L-<a href="Arabinose" title="Arabinose">arabinose</a> and D-xylose, with the types and proportions of neutral sugars varying with the origin of pectin.<a href="#cite_note-Complex_Carbohydrate_Research_Centre-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buchanan-2000-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ccr-RGI-19">[19]</a>

Another structural type of pectin is <a href="Rhamnogalacturonan_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhamnogalacturonan II">rhamnogalacturonan II</a> (RG-II), which is a less frequent, complex, highly branched polysaccharide.<a href="#cite_note-Ccrc-RGII-20">[20]</a> Rhamnogalacturonan II is classified by some authors within the group of substituted galacturonans since the rhamnogalacturonan II backbone is made exclusively of D-galacturonic acid units.<a href="#cite_note-Buchanan-2000-18">[18]</a>

The <a href="Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> of isolated pectine greatly varies by the source and the method of isolation.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Values have been reported as low as 28 kDa for apple pomace <a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> up to 753 kDa for sweet potato peels.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

In nature, around 80 percent of <a href="Carboxyl_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxyl group">carboxyl groups</a> of galacturonic acid are <a href="Ester" title="Ester">esterified</a> with <a href="Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>. This proportion is decreased to a varying degree during pectin extraction. Pectins are classified as high- versus low-methoxy pectins (short HM-pectins versus LM-pectins), with more or less than half of all the galacturonic acid esterified.<a href="#cite_note-Liang-2012-24">[24]</a> The ratio of esterified to non-esterified galacturonic acid determines the behaviour of pectin in food applications – HM-pectins can form a gel under acidic conditions in the presence of high sugar concentrations, while LM-pectins form gels by interaction with divalent cations, particularly <a href="Calcium_in_biology" title="Calcium in biology">Ca2+</a>, according to the idealized 'egg box' model, in which ionic bridges are formed between calcium ions and the ionised carboxyl groups of the galacturonic acid.<a href="#cite_note-Durand-1990-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Migliori-2010-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Liang-2012-24">[24]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substitutions">Substitutions</h3></div>

The non-esterified galacturonic acid units can be either free acids (carboxyl groups) or salts with sodium, potassium, or calcium. The salts of partially esterified pectins are called pectinates, if the degree of esterification is below 5 percent the salts are called pectates, the insoluble acid form, pectic acid.

Some plants, such as <a href="Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">sugar beet</a>, potatoes and pears, contain pectins with acetylated galacturonic acid in addition to methyl esters. Acetylation prevents gel-formation but increases the stabilising and emulsifying effects of pectin.

Amidated pectin is a modified form of pectin. Here, some of the galacturonic acid is converted with <a href="Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> to <a href="Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> <a href="Amide" title="Amide">amide</a>. These pectins are more tolerant of varying calcium concentrations that occur in use.<a href="#cite_note-Belitz-2004-27">[27]</a>

Thiolated pectin exhibits substantially improved gelling properties since this <a href="Thiomer" title="Thiomer">thiomer</a> is able to crosslink via <a href="Disulfide" title="Disulfide">disulfide</a> bond formation. These high gelling properties are advantageous for various pharmaceutical applications and applications in food industry.<a href="#cite_note-Majzoob-2006-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Perera-2010-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2023-30">[30]</a>

Amidated pectins behave like low-ester pectins but need less calcium and are more tolerant of excess calcium. Also, gels from amidated pectin are thermoreversible; they can be heated and after cooling solidify again, whereas conventional pectin-gels will afterwards remain liquid.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gelation">Gelation</h3></div>

In high-methoxy pectins at soluble solids content above 60% and a pH value between 2.8 and 3.6, <a href="Hydrogen_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonds">hydrogen bonds</a> and <a href="Hydrophobic_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic interactions">hydrophobic interactions</a> bind the individual pectin chains together. These bonds form as water is bound by sugar and forces pectin strands to stick together. These form a three-dimensional molecular net that creates the macromolecular gel. The gelling-mechanism is called a low-water-activity gel or sugar-acid-pectin gel.

While low-methoxy pectins need calcium to form a gel, they can do so at lower soluble solids and higher pH than high-methoxy pectins. Normally low-methoxy pectins form gels with a range of pH from 2.6 to 7.0 and with a soluble solids content between 10 and 70%.

To prepare a pectin-gel, the ingredients are heated, dissolving the pectin. Upon cooling below gelling temperature, a gel starts to form. If gel formation is too strong, <a href="Syneresis_(chemistry)" title="Syneresis (chemistry)">syneresis</a> or a granular texture are the result, while weak gelling leads to excessively soft gels.

High-ester pectins set at higher temperatures than low-ester pectins. However, gelling reactions with calcium increase as the degree of esterification falls. Similarly, lower pH-values or higher soluble solids (normally sugars) increase gelling speeds. Suitable pectins can therefore be selected for jams and jellies, or for higher-sugar confectionery jellies.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2></div>

The main raw materials for pectin production are dried citrus peels (85 %) or apple <a href="Pomace" title="Pomace">pomace</a> (14 %), both by-products of juice production. Pomace from sugar beets is also used to a small extent (0.5 %).<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

From these materials, pectin is extracted by adding hot dilute acid at pH values from 1.5 to 3.5. During several hours of extraction, the protopectin loses some of its branching and chain length and goes into solution. After filtering, the extract is concentrated in a vacuum and the pectin is then <a href="Ethanol_precipitation" title="Ethanol precipitation">precipitated</a> by adding ethanol or isopropanol. An old technique of precipitating pectin with aluminium salts is no longer used (apart from alcohols and polyvalent cations, pectin also precipitates with proteins and detergents).

Alcohol-precipitated pectin is then separated, washed, and dried. Treating the initial pectin with dilute acid leads to low-esterified pectins. When this process includes ammonium hydroxide (NH3(aq)), amidated pectins are obtained. After drying and milling, pectin is usually standardised with sugar, and sometimes calcium salts or organic acids, to optimise performance in a particular application.<a href="#cite_note-Eisenbrand-2006-32">[32]</a>

The main use for pectin is as a <a href="Gelling_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelling agent">gelling agent</a>, thickening agent and stabiliser in food.<a href="#cite_note-Han-2020-33">[33]</a>

In some countries, pectin is also available as a solution or an extract, or as a blended powder, for home jam making.

The classical application is giving the jelly-like consistency to jams or <a href="Marmalade" title="Marmalade">marmalades</a>, which would otherwise be sweet juices.<a href="#cite_note-Surolia-2024-34">[34]</a> Pectin also reduces <a href="Syneresis_(chemistry)" title="Syneresis (chemistry)">syneresis</a> in jams and marmalades and increases the gel strength of low-calorie jams. For household use, pectin is an ingredient in <a href="Gelling_sugar" title="Gelling sugar">gelling sugar</a> (also known as "jam sugar") where it is diluted to the right concentration with sugar and some citric acid to adjust pH.

For various food applications, different kinds of pectins can be distinguished by their properties, such as acidity, degree of esterification, relative number of methoxyl groups in the molecules, etc. For instance, the term "high methoxyl" refers to pectins that have a large proportion of the carboxyl groups in the pectin molecule that are esterified with methanol, compared to low methoxyl pectins:<a href="#cite_note-Surolia-2024-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kontogiorgos_V-2020-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Endress-2011-36">[36]</a>

<ul><li>high methoxyl pectins are defined as those with a degree of esterification equal to or above 50, are typically used in traditional jam and jelly making;<a href="#cite_note-UniPECTINE-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yang-2020-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Han-2020-33">[33]</a> such pectins require high sugar concentrations and acidic conditions to form gels, and provide a smooth texture and suitable to be used in bakery fillings and confectionery applications;<a href="#cite_note-Han-2020-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Endress-2011-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sultana-2023-39">[39]</a></li>

<li>low methoxyl pectins have a degree of esterification of less than 50,<a href="#cite_note-Endress-2011-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Han-2020-33">[33]</a> can be either amidated or non-amidated: the percentage level of substitution of the amide group, defined as the degree of amidation, defines the efficacy of a pectin;<a href="#cite_note-Han-2020-33">[33]</a> low methoxyl pectins can provide a range of textures and rheological properties, depending on the calcium concentration and the calcium reactivity of the pectin chosen<a href="#cite_note-Said-2023-40">[40]</a>—amidated low methoxyl pectins are generally thermoreversible, meaning they can form gels that can melt and reform, whereas non-amidated low methoxyl pectins can form thermostable gels that withstand high temperatures;<a href="#cite_note-Said-2023-40">[40]</a> these properties make low methoxyl pectins suitable for low sugar and sugar-free applications, dairy products, and stabilizing acidic protein drinks.<a href="#cite_note-UniPECTINE-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kontogiorgos_V-2020-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Han-2020-33">[33]</a></li></ul>

For conventional jams and marmalades that contain above 60% sugar and soluble fruit solids, high-ester (high methoxyl) pectins are used. With low-ester (low methoxyl) pectins and amidated pectins, less sugar is needed, so that diet products can be made. Water extract of <a href="Ficus_pumila_var._awkeotsang" title="Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang">aiyu</a> seeds is traditionally used in Taiwan to make <a href="Aiyu_jelly" title="Aiyu jelly">aiyu jelly</a>, where the extract gels without heating due to low-ester pectins from the seeds and the bivalent cations from the water.<a href="#cite_note-Liang-2012-24">[24]</a>

Pectin is used in confectionery jellies to give a good gel structure, a clean bite and to confer a good flavour release. Pectin can also be used to stabilise acidic protein drinks, such as drinking yogurt, to improve the mouth-feel and the pulp stability in juice based drinks and as a <a href="Fat_substitute" title="Fat substitute">fat substitute</a> in baked goods.<a href="#cite_note-UniPECTINE-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-May-1990-41">[41]</a>

Typical levels of pectin used as a food additive are between 0.5 and 1.0% – this is about the same amount of pectin as in fresh fruit.<a href="#cite_note-Thakur-1997-42">[42]</a>

In medicine, pectin increases <a href="Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> and volume of <a href="Feces" title="Feces">stool</a> so that it is used against <a href="Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a> and <a href="Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>. Until 2002, it was one of the main ingredients used in <a href="Kaopectate" title="Kaopectate">Kaopectate</a> – a medication to combat diarrhea – along with <a href="Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>. It has been used in gentle heavy metal removal from biological systems.<a href="#cite_note-Zhao-2008-43">[43]</a> Pectin is also used in throat lozenges as a <a href="Demulcent" title="Demulcent">demulcent</a>.

In cosmetic products, pectin acts as a stabiliser. Pectin is also used in wound healing preparations and speciality medical adhesives, such as <a href="Colostomy" title="Colostomy">colostomy</a> devices.

Sriamornsak<a href="#cite_note-Sriamornsak-2011-44">[44]</a> revealed that pectin could be used in various oral drug delivery platforms, e.g., controlled release systems, gastro-retentive systems, colon-specific delivery systems and mucoadhesive delivery systems, according to its intoxicity and low cost. It was found that pectin from different sources provides different gelling abilities, due to variations in molecular size and chemical composition. Like other natural polymers, a major problem with pectin is inconsistency in reproducibility between samples, which may result in poor reproducibility in drug delivery characteristics.

In <a href="Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminant</a> nutrition, depending on the extent of lignification of the cell wall, pectin is up to 90% digestible by bacterial enzymes. Ruminant nutritionists recommend that the digestibility and energy concentration in forages be improved by increasing pectin concentration in the forage.

In cigars, pectin is considered an excellent substitute for vegetable glue and many cigar smokers and collectors use pectin for repairing damaged tobacco leaves on their cigars.

Yablokov et al., writing in <a href="Chernobyl%3A_Consequences_of_the_Catastrophe_for_People_and_the_Environment" title="Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment">Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment</a>, quote research conducted by the Ukrainian Center of Radiation Medicine and the Belarusian Institute of Radiation Medicine and Endocrinology, concluded, regarding pectin's radioprotective effects, that "adding pectin preparations to the food of inhabitants of the Chernobyl-contaminated regions promotes an effective excretion of incorporated <a href="Radionuclides" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclides">radionuclides</a>" such as <a href="Cesium-137" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesium-137">cesium-137</a>. The authors reported on the positive results of using pectin food additive preparations in a number of clinical studies conducted on children in severely polluted areas, with up to 50% improvement over control groups.<a href="#cite_note-Nesterenko-2009-45">[45]</a>

During the Second World War, Allied pilots were provided with maps printed on silk, for navigation in escape and evasion efforts. The printing process at first proved nearly impossible because the several layers of ink immediately ran, blurring outlines and rendering place names illegible until the inventor of the maps, <a href="Christopher_Hutton" title="Christopher Hutton">Clayton Hutton</a>, mixed a little pectin with the ink and at once the pectin coagulated the ink and prevented it from running, allowing small topographic features to be clearly visible.<a href="#cite_note-www.escape-maps.com-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_status">Legal status</h2></div>

At <a href="The_Joint_FAO/WHO_Expert_Committee_Report_on_Food_Additives" class="mw-redirect" title="The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food Additives">the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on Food Additives</a> and in the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, no numerical <a href="Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">acceptable daily intake</a> (ADI) has been set, as pectin is considered safe.<a href="#cite_note-FAO/WHO_Expert_Committee_on_Food_Additives-47">[47]</a>

The European Union (EU) has not set a daily intake limit for two types of pectin, known as E440(i) and Amidated Pectin E440(ii). The EU has established purity standards for these additives in the EU Commission Regulation (EU)/231/2012. Pectin can be used as needed in most food categories, a concept referred to as "quantum satis".<a href="#cite_note-Commission_Regulation-48">[48]</a> The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conducted a re-evaluation of Pectin E440(i) and Amidated Pectin E440(ii) in 2017. The EFSA concluded that the use of these food additives poses no safety concern for the general population. Furthermore, the agency stated that it is not necessary to establish a numerical value for the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI).<a href="#cite_note-Mortensen-2017-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-EFSA_Panel_on_Food_Additives_and_Flavourings_(FAF)-2021-50">[50]</a>

In the United States, pectin is <a href="Generally_recognised_as_safe" class="mw-redirect" title="Generally recognised as safe">generally recognised as safe</a> for human consumption.

In the <a href="International_Numbering_System" class="mw-redirect" title="International Numbering System">International Numbering System</a> (INS), pectin has the number 440. In Europe, pectins are differentiated into the <a href="E_number" title="E number">E numbers</a> E440(i) for non-amidated pectins and E440(ii) for <a href="Amide" title="Amide">amidated</a> pectins. There are specifications in all national and international legislation defining its quality and regulating its use.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

Pectin was first isolated and described in 1825 by <a href="Henri_Braconnot" title="Henri Braconnot">Henri Braconnot</a>, though the action of pectin to make jams and marmalades was known long before. To obtain well-set jams from fruits that had little or only poor quality pectin, pectin-rich fruits or their extracts were mixed into the recipe.

During the <a href="Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, the makers of fruit preserves turned to producers of apple juice to obtain dried apple <a href="Pomace" title="Pomace">pomace</a> that was cooked to extract pectin. Later, in the 1920s and 1930s, factories were built that commercially extracted pectin from dried apple pomace, and later citrus peel, in regions that produced apple juice in both the US and Europe.

Pectin was first sold as a liquid extract, but is now most often used as dried powder, which is easier than a liquid to store and handle.<a href="#cite_note-International_Pectin_Producers_Association-51">[51]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Fruit_snacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit snacks">Fruit snacks</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Mortensen-2017-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Mortensen-2017_49-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMortensenAguilarCrebelliDi_Domenico2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mortensen A, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Di Domenico A, Dusemund B, Frutos MJ, et al. (6 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4866">"Re-evaluation of pectin (E 440i) and amidated pectin (E 440ii) as food additives"</a>. EFSA Journal. 15 (7): e04866. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2017.4866">10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4866</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7010145">7010145</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32625540">32625540</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220121075034/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4866">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-EFSA_Panel_on_Food_Additives_and_Flavourings_(FAF)-2021-50"><a href="#cite_ref-EFSA_Panel_on_Food_Additives_and_Flavourings_(FAF)-2021_50-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEFSA_Panel_on_Food_Additives_and_Flavourings_(FAF)2021" class="citation journal cs1">EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF) (29 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/6387">"Opinion on the re-evaluation of pectin (E 440i) and amidated pectin (E 440ii) as food additives in foods for infants below 16 weeks of age and follow-up of their re-evaluation as food additives for uses in foods for all population groups | EFSA"</a>. EFSA Journal. 19 (1): e06387. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2903%2Fj.efsa.2021.6387">10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6387</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11368%2F2979399">11368/2979399</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7845505">7845505</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33537069">33537069</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220121064700/https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/6387">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-International_Pectin_Producers_Association-51"><a href="#cite_ref-International_Pectin_Producers_Association_51-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220211200148/https://ippa.info/">"International Pectin Producers Association"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ippa.info">the original</a> on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2007.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.codexalimentarius.net/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=21">Codex General Standard for Food Additives (GSFA) Online Database; A list of permitted uses of pectin, further link to the JECFA (...) specification of pectin.</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080309150734/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/consleg/1995/L/01995L0002-20031120-en.pdf">European parliament and council directive No 95/2/EC of 20 February 1995 on food additives other than colours and sweeteners; EU-Directive that lists the foods, pectin may be used in.</a> Note: The link points to a "consleg"-version of the directive, that may not include the very latest changes. The Directive will be replaced by a new Regulation for food additives in the next few years.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.certohealth.co.uk/health.html">Certo Health: Information on reported health benefits of apple pectin, (UK).</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Apples532" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Apple" title="Apple">Apples</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_apple_cultivars" title="List of apple cultivars">List of apple cultivars</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apple" title="Apple">Malus domestica</a></li>

<li><a href="Malus_niedzwetzkyana" title="Malus niedzwetzkyana">Malus niedzwetzkyana</a></li>

<li><a href="Malus_sieversii" title="Malus sieversii">Malus sieversii</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Table_apple" title="Table apple">Table apples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adams_Pearmain" title="Adams Pearmain">Adams Pearmain</a></li>

<li><a href="Airlie_Red_Flesh" title="Airlie Red Flesh">Airlie Red Flesh</a></li>

<li><a href="Akane_(apple)" title="Akane (apple)">Akane</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%85ker%C3%B6" title="Åkerö">Åkerö</a></li>

<li><a href="Alkmene_(apple)" title="Alkmene (apple)">Alkmene</a></li>

<li><a href="Allington_Pippin" title="Allington Pippin">Allington Pippin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambrosia_(apple)" title="Ambrosia (apple)">Ambrosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Annurca" title="Annurca">Annurca</a></li>

<li><a href="Ariane_(apple)" title="Ariane (apple)">Ariane</a></li>

<li><a href="Arkansas_Black" title="Arkansas Black">Arkansas Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Ashmead's_Kernel" title="Ashmead's Kernel">Ashmead's Kernel</a></li>

<li><a href="Aurora_Golden_Gala" title="Aurora Golden Gala">Aurora Golden Gala</a></li>

<li><a href="Autumn_Bough" title="Autumn Bough">Autumn Bough</a></li>

<li><a href="Autumn_Glory" title="Autumn Glory">Autumn Glory</a></li>

<li><a href="Baldwin_(apple)" title="Baldwin (apple)">Baldwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Beacon_(apple)" title="Beacon (apple)">Beacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Beauty_of_Bath" title="Beauty of Bath">Beauty of Bath</a></li>

<li><a href="Belle_de_Boskoop" title="Belle de Boskoop">Belle de Boskoop</a></li>

<li><a href="Bellflower_apple" title="Bellflower apple">Bellflower</a></li>

<li><a href="Ben_Davis_(apple)" title="Ben Davis (apple)">Ben Davis</a></li>

<li><a href="Birgit_Bonnier" title="Birgit Bonnier">Birgit Bonnier</a></li>

<li><a href="Braeburn" title="Braeburn">Braeburn</a></li>

<li><a href="Brina" title="Brina">Brina</a></li>

<li><a href="Cameo_(apple)" title="Cameo (apple)">Cameo</a></li>

<li><a href="Champion_(apple)" title="Champion (apple)">Champion</a></li>

<li><a href="Civni_apple" title="Civni apple">Civni (Rubens)</a></li>

<li><a href="Claygate_Pearmain" title="Claygate Pearmain">Claygate Pearmain</a></li>

<li><a href="Clivia_(apple)" title="Clivia (apple)">Clivia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cornish_Aromatic" title="Cornish Aromatic">Cornish Aromatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Cornish_Gilliflower" title="Cornish Gilliflower">Cornish Gilliflower</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortland_(apple)" title="Cortland (apple)">Cortland</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmic_Crisp" title="Cosmic Crisp">Cosmic Crisp</a></li>

<li><a href="Court_Pendu_Plat" title="Court Pendu Plat">Court Pendu Plat</a></li>

<li><a href="Cox's_Orange_Pippin" title="Cox's Orange Pippin">Cox's Orange Pippin</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimson_Gold_(apple)" title="Crimson Gold (apple)">Crimson Gold</a></li>

<li><a href="Cripps_Red" title="Cripps Red">Cripps Red</a></li>

<li><a href="Cripps_Pink" title="Cripps Pink">Cripps Pink (Pink Lady)</a></li>

<li><a href="Delbard_Jubil%C3%A9e" title="Delbard Jubilée">Delbard Jubilée</a></li>

<li><a href="Delbarestivale" title="Delbarestivale">Delbarestivale</a></li>

<li><a href="Delrouval" title="Delrouval">Delrouval</a></li>

<li><a href="Devonshire_Quarrenden" title="Devonshire Quarrenden">Devonshire Quarrenden</a></li>

<li><a href="Discovery_(apple)" title="Discovery (apple)">Discovery</a></li>

<li><a href="Dorsett_Golden" title="Dorsett Golden">Dorsett Golden</a></li>

<li><a href="Dougherty_(apple)" title="Dougherty (apple)">Dougherty</a></li>

<li><a href="Duchess_of_Oldenburg_(apple)" title="Duchess of Oldenburg (apple)">Duchess of Oldenburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Dumelow's_Seedling" title="Dumelow's Seedling">Dumelow's Seedling</a></li>

<li><a href="Egremont_Russet" title="Egremont Russet">Egremont Russet</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellison's_Orange" title="Ellison's Orange">Ellison's Orange</a></li>

<li><a href="Elstar" title="Elstar">Elstar</a></li>

<li><a href="Empire_(apple)" title="Empire (apple)">Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_(apple)" title="Enterprise (apple)">Enterprise</a></li>

<li><a href="Esopus_Spitzenburg" title="Esopus Spitzenburg">Esopus Spitzenburg</a></li>

<li><a href="EverCrisp" title="EverCrisp">EverCrisp</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiesta_(apple)" title="Fiesta (apple)">Fiesta</a></li>

<li><a href="Filippa_(apple)" title="Filippa (apple)">Filippa</a></li>

<li><a href="Flamenco_(apple)" title="Flamenco (apple)">Flamenco</a></li>

<li><a href="Florina_(apple)" title="Florina (apple)">Florina</a></li>

<li><a href="Gascoyne's_Scarlet" title="Gascoyne's Scarlet">Gascoyne's Scarlet</a></li>

<li><a href="Geheimrat_Dr._Oldenburg" title="Geheimrat Dr. Oldenburg">Geheimrat Dr. Oldenburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Ginger_Gold" title="Ginger Gold">Ginger Gold</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Delicious" title="Golden Delicious">Golden Delicious</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Orange_(apple)" title="Golden Orange (apple)">Golden Orange</a></li>

<li><a href="Goldspur" title="Goldspur">Goldspur</a></li>

<li><a href="Granny_Smith" title="Granny Smith">Granny Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravenstein" title="Gravenstein">Gravenstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Grimes_Golden" title="Grimes Golden">Grimes Golden</a></li>

<li><a href="Haralson_(apple)" title="Haralson (apple)">Haralson</a></li>

<li><a href="Hokuto_(apple)" title="Hokuto (apple)">Hokuto</a></li>

<li><a href="Honeycrisp" title="Honeycrisp">Honeycrisp</a></li>

<li><a href="Honeygold" title="Honeygold">Honeygold</a></li>

<li><a href="Idared" title="Idared">Idared</a></li>

<li><a href="Ingrid_Marie" title="Ingrid Marie">Ingrid Marie</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Grieve_(apple)" title="James Grieve (apple)">James Grieve</a></li>

<li><a href="Jersey_Black" title="Jersey Black">Jersey Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonadel" title="Jonadel">Jonadel</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonagold" title="Jonagold">Jonagold</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_(apple)" title="Jonathan (apple)">Jonathan</a></li>

<li><a href="Jubilee_apple" title="Jubilee apple">Jubilee</a></li>

<li><a href="Julieta_(apple)" title="Julieta (apple)">Julieta</a></li>

<li><a href="Jupiter_(apple)" title="Jupiter (apple)">Jupiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Kanzi_(apple)" title="Kanzi (apple)">Kanzi</a></li>

<li><a href="Karmijn_de_Sonnaville" title="Karmijn de Sonnaville">Karmijn de Sonnaville</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidd's_Orange_Red" title="Kidd's Orange Red">Kidd's Orange Red</a></li>

<li><a href="King_of_the_Pippins" title="King of the Pippins">King of the Pippins</a></li>

<li><a href="Knobby_Russet" title="Knobby Russet">Knobby Russet</a></li>

<li><a href="Lady_Alice_(apple)" title="Lady Alice (apple)">Lady Alice</a></li>

<li><a href="Laxton's_Superb" title="Laxton's Superb">Laxton's Superb</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberty_(apple)" title="Liberty (apple)">Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Liveland_Raspberry_apple" title="Liveland Raspberry apple">Liveland Raspberry</a></li>

<li><a href="Lord_Lambourne_(apple)" title="Lord Lambourne (apple)">Lord Lambourne</a></li>

<li><a href="Lucombe's_Seedling" title="Lucombe's Seedling">Lucombe's Seedling</a></li>

<li><a href="Macoun_apple" title="Macoun apple">Macoun</a></li>

<li><a href="McIntosh_(apple)" title="McIntosh (apple)">McIntosh</a></li>

<li><a href="Melba_(apple)" title="Melba (apple)">Melba</a></li>

<li><a href="Melrose_(apple)" title="Melrose (apple)">Melrose</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutsu_(apple)" title="Mutsu (apple)">Mutsu</a></li>

<li><a href="Newtown_Pippin" title="Newtown Pippin">Newtown Pippin</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicola_(apple)" title="Nicola (apple)">Nicola</a></li>

<li><a href="Sciros" title="Sciros">Sciros (Pacific Rose)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pam's_Delight" title="Pam's Delight">Pam's Delight</a></li>

<li><a href="Papirovka" title="Papirovka">Papirovka</a></li>

<li><a href="Paula_Red" title="Paula Red">Paula Red</a></li>

<li><a href="Pink_Pearl_(apple)" title="Pink Pearl (apple)">Pink Pearl</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinova" title="Pinova">Pinova</a></li>

<li><a href="Prima_apple" title="Prima apple">Prima</a></li>

<li><a href="Pristine_apple" title="Pristine apple">Pristine</a></li>

<li><a href="Rajka_(apple)" title="Rajka (apple)">Rajka</a></li>

<li><a href="Ralls_Janet" title="Ralls Janet">Ralls Janet</a></li>

<li><a href="Rambo_apple" title="Rambo apple">Rambo</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Astrachan" title="Red Astrachan">Red Astrachan</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Delicious" title="Red Delicious">Red Delicious</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Pineapple_(apple)" title="Red Pineapple (apple)">Red Pineapple</a></li>

<li><a href="Redlove_apples" title="Redlove apples">Redlove apples</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhode_Island_Greening" title="Rhode Island Greening">Rhode Island Greening</a></li>

<li><a href="Ribston_Pippin" title="Ribston Pippin">Ribston Pippin</a></li>

<li><a href="Roxbury_Russet" title="Roxbury Russet">Roxbury Russet</a></li>

<li><a href="Sandow_(apple)" title="Sandow (apple)">Sandow</a></li>

<li><a href="Sansa_apple" title="Sansa apple">Sansa</a></li>

<li><a href="Sekai_Ichi" title="Sekai Ichi">Sekai Ichi</a></li>

<li><a href="Spartan_(apple)" title="Spartan (apple)">Spartan</a></li>

<li><a href="Splendour_(apple)" title="Splendour (apple)">Splendour</a></li>

<li><a href="Star_of_Devon" title="Star of Devon">Star of Devon</a></li>

<li><a href="Stayman_(apple)" title="Stayman (apple)">Stayman</a></li>

<li><a href="Sturmer_Pippin" title="Sturmer Pippin">Sturmer Pippin</a></li>

<li><a href="SugarBee" title="SugarBee">SugarBee</a></li>

<li><a href="Summerfree" title="Summerfree">Summerfree</a></li>

<li><a href="Cripps_Red" title="Cripps Red">Sundowner</a></li>

<li><a href="Sunset_(apple)" title="Sunset (apple)">Sunset</a></li>

<li><a href="Suntan_(apple)" title="Suntan (apple)">Suntan</a></li>

<li><a href="SweeTango" title="SweeTango">SweeTango</a></li>

<li><a href="Taliaferro_(apple)" title="Taliaferro (apple)">Taliaferro</a></li>

<li><a href="Tartu_Rose" title="Tartu Rose">Tartu Rose</a></li>

<li><a href="Tentation" title="Tentation">Tentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Tompkins_King" title="Tompkins King">Tompkins King</a></li>

<li><a href="Topaz_(apple)" title="Topaz (apple)">Topaz</a></li>

<li><a href="Wealthy_(apple)" title="Wealthy (apple)">Wealthy</a></li>

<li><a href="Winesap" title="Winesap">Winesap</a></li>

<li><a href="Winston_(apple)" title="Winston (apple)">Winston</a></li>

<li><a href="Worcester_Pearmain" title="Worcester Pearmain">Worcester Pearmain</a></li>

<li><a href="Wyken_Pippin" title="Wyken Pippin">Wyken Pippin</a></li>

<li><a href="York_Imperial" title="York Imperial">York Imperial</a></li>

<li><a href="Zestar_apple" title="Zestar apple">Zestar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cooking_apple" title="Cooking apple">Cooking apples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antonovka" title="Antonovka">Antonovka</a></li>

<li><a href="Bismarck_(apple)" title="Bismarck (apple)">Bismarck</a></li>

<li><a href="Blenheim_Orange" title="Blenheim Orange">Blenheim Orange</a></li>

<li><a href="Bramley_apple" title="Bramley apple">Bramley</a></li>

<li><a href="Calville_Blanc_d'hiver" title="Calville Blanc d'hiver">Calville Blanc d'hiver</a></li>

<li><a href="Campanino" title="Campanino">Campanino</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellini_(apple)" title="Cellini (apple)">Cellini</a></li>

<li><a href="Chelmsford_Wonder" title="Chelmsford Wonder">Chelmsford Wonder</a></li>

<li><a href="Costard_(apple)" title="Costard (apple)">Costard</a></li>

<li><a href="Creston_(apple)" title="Creston (apple)">Creston</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimson_Bramley" title="Crimson Bramley">Crimson Bramley</a></li>

<li><a href="Flower_of_Kent" title="Flower of Kent">Flower of Kent</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Noble" title="Golden Noble">Golden Noble</a></li>

<li><a href="Granny_Smith" title="Granny Smith">Granny Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Grenadier_(apple)" title="Grenadier (apple)">Grenadier</a></li>

<li><a href="King_Byerd" title="King Byerd">King Byerd</a></li>

<li><a href="Manks_Codlin" title="Manks Codlin">Manks Codlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Newton_Wonder" title="Newton Wonder">Newton Wonder</a></li>

<li><a href="Norfolk_Biffin" title="Norfolk Biffin">Norfolk Biffin</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_Spy" title="Northern Spy">Northern Spy</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinette_du_Canada" title="Reinette du Canada">Reinette du Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Upton_Pyne_apple" title="Upton Pyne apple">Upton Pyne</a></li>

<li><a href="White_Transparent" title="White Transparent">White Transparent</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolf_River_(apple)" title="Wolf River (apple)">Wolf River</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cider_apple" title="Cider apple">Cider apples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brown_Snout" title="Brown Snout">Brown Snout</a></li>

<li><a href="Cap_of_Liberty_(apple)" title="Cap of Liberty (apple)">Cap of Liberty</a></li>

<li><a href="Chisel_Jersey" title="Chisel Jersey">Chisel Jersey</a></li>

<li><a href="Coccagee" title="Coccagee">Coccagee</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimson_King_(apple)" title="Crimson King (apple)">Crimson King</a></li>

<li><a href="Dabinett" title="Dabinett">Dabinett</a></li>

<li><a href="Dufflin_(apple)" title="Dufflin (apple)">Dufflin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellis_Bitter" title="Ellis Bitter">Ellis Bitter</a></li>

<li><a href="Foxwhelp" title="Foxwhelp">Foxwhelp</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Russet" title="Golden Russet">Golden Russet</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Spire" title="Golden Spire">Golden Spire</a></li>

<li><a href="Hangdown_(apple)" title="Hangdown (apple)">Hangdown</a></li>

<li><a href="Harrison_Cider_Apple" title="Harrison Cider Apple">Harrison Cider</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingston_Black" title="Kingston Black">Kingston Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Major_(cider_apple)" title="Major (cider apple)">Major</a></li>

<li><a href="Michelin_(apple)" title="Michelin (apple)">Michelin</a></li>

<li><a href="Poveshon" title="Poveshon">Poveshon</a></li>

<li><a href="Redstreak" title="Redstreak">Redstreak</a></li>

<li><a href="Slack-ma-Girdle" title="Slack-ma-Girdle">Slack-ma-Girdle</a></li>

<li><a href="Styre" title="Styre">Styre</a></li>

<li><a href="Woodcock_(apple)" title="Woodcock (apple)">Woodcock</a></li>

<li><a href="Yarlington_Mill" title="Yarlington Mill">Yarlington Mill</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ornamental_plant" title="Ornamental plant">Ornamental apple</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flamenco_(apple)" title="Flamenco (apple)">Flamenco</a></li>

<li><a href="Goldspur" title="Goldspur">Goldspur</a></li>

<li><a href="Wijcik_McIntosh" title="Wijcik McIntosh">Wijcik McIntosh</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_apple_dishes" title="List of apple dishes">Apple products</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apfelk%C3%BCchle" title="Apfelküchle">Apfelküchle</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_butter" title="Apple butter">Apple butter</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_cake" title="Apple cake">Apple cake</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_cheese" title="Apple cheese">Apple cheese</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_chip" title="Apple chip">Apple chip</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_cider_vinegar" title="Apple cider vinegar">Apple cider vinegar</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_crisp" title="Apple crisp">Apple crisp</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_dumpling" title="Apple dumpling">Apple dumpling</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_flour" title="Apple flour">Apple flour</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_pie" title="Apple pie">Apple pie</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_sauce" title="Apple sauce">Apple sauce</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_seed_oil" title="Apple seed oil">Apple seed oil</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_strudel" title="Apple strudel">Apple strudel</a></li>

<li><a href="Apples_and_honey" title="Apples and honey">Apples and honey</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooking_apple" title="Cooking apple">Baked apple</a></li>

<li><a href="Brown_Betty_(dessert)" title="Brown Betty (dessert)">Brown Betty</a></li>

<li><a href="Candy_apple" title="Candy apple">Candy apple</a></li>

<li><a href="Caramel_apple" title="Caramel apple">Caramel apple</a></li>

<li><a href="Eve's_pudding" title="Eve's pudding">Eve's pudding</a></li>

<li><a href="Himmel_und_Erde" title="Himmel und Erde">Himmel und Erde</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_apple_cake" title="Jewish apple cake">Jewish apple cake</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Drink</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apfelwein" title="Apfelwein">Apfelwein</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_cider" title="Apple cider">Apple cider</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_juice" title="Apple juice">Apple juice</a></li>

<li><a href="Applejack_(drink)" title="Applejack (drink)">Applejack</a></li>

<li><a href="Calvados" title="Calvados">Calvados</a></li>

<li><a href="Cider" title="Cider">Cider</a></li>

<li><a href="Ice_cider" title="Ice cider">Ice cider</a></li>

<li><a href="Pommeau" title="Pommeau">Pommeau</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fruit_picking#Apple_picking" title="Fruit picking">Apple picking</a></li>

<li><a href="Apple_scab" title="Apple scab">Apple scab</a></li>

<li><a href="Applecrab" title="Applecrab">Applecrab</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_Apples" title="Arctic Apples">Arctic Apples</a></li>

<li><a href="Fruit_tree_pruning" title="Fruit tree pruning">Fruit tree pruning</a></li>

<li><a href="Gymnosporangium_juniperi-virginianae" title="Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae">Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae</a></li>

<li><a href="Johnny_Appleseed" title="Johnny Appleseed">Johnny Appleseed</a></li>

<li><a href="Malling_series" title="Malling series">Malling series</a></li>

<li><a href="Malus" title="Malus">Malus</a></li>

<li><a href="Pearmain" title="Pearmain">Pearmain</a></li>

<li><a href="Fruit_tree_pollination#Apples" title="Fruit tree pollination">Pollination</a></li>

<li><a href="PRI_disease_resistant_apple_breeding_program" title="PRI disease resistant apple breeding program">PRI disease resistant apple breeding program</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinette" title="Reinette">Reinette</a></li>

<li><a href="Russet_apple" title="Russet apple">Russeting</a></li>

<li><a href="USApple_Association" title="USApple Association">USApple Association</a></li>

<li>Lists

<ul><li><a href="List_of_countries_by_apple_production" title="List of countries by apple production">Countries by apple production</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_apple_diseases" title="List of apple diseases">Apple diseases</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Apples</li>

<li> Cultivars</li>

<li> Production</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_carbohydrates184" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_carbohydrates184" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aldose" title="Aldose">Aldose</a></li>

<li><a href="Ketose" title="Ketose">Ketose</a></li>

<li><a href="Furanose" title="Furanose">Furanose</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyranose" title="Pyranose">Pyranose</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geometry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anomer" title="Anomer">Anomer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyclohexane_conformation" title="Cyclohexane conformation">Cyclohexane conformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Epimer" title="Epimer">Epimer</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutarotation" title="Mutarotation">Mutarotation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">Monosaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Diose" title="Diose">Dioses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Aldodiose

<ul><li><a href="Glycolaldehyde" title="Glycolaldehyde">Glycolaldehyde</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Triose" title="Triose">Trioses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Aldotriose

<ul><li><a href="Glyceraldehyde" title="Glyceraldehyde">Glyceraldehyde</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Ketotriose

<ul><li><a href="Dihydroxyacetone" title="Dihydroxyacetone">Dihydroxyacetone</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tetrose" title="Tetrose">Tetroses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Aldotetroses

<ul><li><a href="Erythrose" title="Erythrose">Erythrose</a></li>

<li><a href="Threose" title="Threose">Threose</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Ketotetrose

<ul><li><a href="Erythrulose" title="Erythrulose">Erythrulose</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pentose" title="Pentose">Pentoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Aldopentoses

<ul><li><a href="Arabinose" title="Arabinose">Arabinose</a></li>

<li><a href="Lyxose" title="Lyxose">Lyxose</a></li>

<li><a href="Ribose" title="Ribose">Ribose</a></li>

<li><a href="Xylose" title="Xylose">Xylose</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Ketopentoses

<ul><li><a href="Ribulose" title="Ribulose">Ribulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Xylulose" title="Xylulose">Xylulose</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Deoxy_sugar" title="Deoxy sugar">Deoxy sugars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Deoxyribose" title="Deoxyribose">Deoxyribose</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hexose" title="Hexose">Hexoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aldohexose" class="mw-redirect" title="Aldohexose">Aldohexoses</a>

<ul><li><a href="Allose" title="Allose">Allose</a></li>

<li><a href="Altrose" title="Altrose">Altrose</a></li>

<li><a href="Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactose</a></li>

<li><a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">Glucose</a></li>

<li><a href="Gulose" title="Gulose">Gulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Idose" title="Idose">Idose</a></li>

<li><a href="Mannose" title="Mannose">Mannose</a></li>

<li><a href="Talose" title="Talose">Talose</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ketohexose" class="mw-redirect" title="Ketohexose">Ketohexoses</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fructose" title="Fructose">Fructose</a></li>

<li><a href="Psicose" title="Psicose">Psicose</a></li>

<li><a href="Sorbose" title="Sorbose">Sorbose</a></li>

<li><a href="Tagatose" title="Tagatose">Tagatose</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Deoxy sugars

<ul><li><a href="Fucose" title="Fucose">Fucose</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuculose" title="Fuculose">Fuculose</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhamnose" title="Rhamnose">Rhamnose</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Heptose" title="Heptose">Heptoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Ketoheptoses

<ul><li><a href="Mannoheptulose" title="Mannoheptulose">Mannoheptulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Sedoheptulose" title="Sedoheptulose">Sedoheptulose</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Above 7</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Octose" title="Octose">Octoses</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonose" title="Nonose">Nonoses</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neuraminic_acid" title="Neuraminic acid">Neuraminic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">Disaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cellobiose" title="Cellobiose">Cellobiose</a></li>

<li><a href="Isomaltose" title="Isomaltose">Isomaltose</a></li>

<li><a href="Isomaltulose" title="Isomaltulose">Isomaltulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Lactose" title="Lactose">Lactose</a></li>

<li><a href="Lactulose" title="Lactulose">Lactulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Maltose" title="Maltose">Maltose</a></li>

<li><a href="Sucrose" title="Sucrose">Sucrose</a></li>

<li><a href="Trehalose" title="Trehalose">Trehalose</a></li>

<li><a href="Turanose" title="Turanose">Turanose</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Trisaccharide" title="Trisaccharide">Trisaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Maltotriose" title="Maltotriose">Maltotriose</a></li>

<li><a href="Melezitose" title="Melezitose">Melezitose</a></li>

<li><a href="Raffinose" title="Raffinose">Raffinose</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tetrasaccharide" title="Tetrasaccharide">Tetrasaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stachyose" title="Stachyose">Stachyose</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acarbose" title="Acarbose">Acarbose</a></li>

<li><a href="Fructooligosaccharide" title="Fructooligosaccharide">Fructooligosaccharide</a> (FOS)</li>

<li><a href="Galactooligosaccharide" title="Galactooligosaccharide">Galactooligosaccharide</a> (GOS)</li>

<li><a href="Isomaltooligosaccharide" title="Isomaltooligosaccharide">Isomaltooligosaccharide</a> (IMO)</li>

<li><a href="Maltodextrin" title="Maltodextrin">Maltodextrin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">Polysaccharides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beta-glucan" title="Beta-glucan">Beta-glucan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Oat_beta-glucan" title="Oat beta-glucan">Oat beta-glucan</a></li>

<li><a href="Lentinan" title="Lentinan">Lentinan</a></li>

<li><a href="Schizophyllan" title="Schizophyllan">Sizofiran</a></li>

<li><a href="Zymosan" title="Zymosan">Zymosan</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Chitin" title="Chitin">Chitin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chitosan" title="Chitosan">Chitosan</a></li>

<li><a href="Dextrin" title="Dextrin">Dextrin</a> / <a href="Dextran" title="Dextran">Dextran</a></li>

<li><a href="Fructose" title="Fructose">Fructose</a> / <a href="Fructan" title="Fructan">Fructan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inulin" title="Inulin">Inulin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactose</a> / <a href="Galactose" title="Galactose">Galactan</a></li>

<li><a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">Glucose</a> / <a href="Glucan" title="Glucan">Glucan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Glycogen" title="Glycogen">Glycogen</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">Hemicellulose</a></li>

<li><a href="Levan_polysaccharide" title="Levan polysaccharide">Levan beta 2→6</a></li>

<li><a href="Lignin" title="Lignin">Lignin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mannans" title="Mannans">Mannan</a></li>

<li><a href="Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Amylopectin" title="Amylopectin">Amylopectin</a></li>

<li><a href="Amylose" title="Amylose">Amylose</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Xanthan_gum" title="Xanthan gum">Xanthan gum</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Antidiarrheals,_intestinal_anti-inflammatory_and_anti-infective_agents_(A07)627" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antidiarrheals,_intestinal_anti-inflammatory_and_anti-infective_agents_(A07)627" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Antidiarrhoeal" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidiarrhoeal">Antidiarrheals</a>, <a href="Intestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal">intestinal</a> <a href="Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">anti-inflammatory</a> and <a href="Anti-infective" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-infective">anti-infective</a> agents (<a href="ATC_code_A07" title="ATC code A07">A07</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rehydration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">Oral rehydration therapy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intestinal anti-infectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">Antibiotics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Amphotericin_B" title="Amphotericin B">Amphotericin B</a></li>

<li><a href="Colistin" title="Colistin">Colistin</a></li>

<li><a href="Fidaxomicin" title="Fidaxomicin">Fidaxomicin</a></li>

<li><a href="Kanamycin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanamycin">Kanamycin</a></li>

<li><a href="Natamycin" title="Natamycin">Natamycin</a></li>

<li><a href="Neomycin" title="Neomycin">Neomycin</a></li>

<li><a href="Nystatin" title="Nystatin">Nystatin</a></li>

<li><a href="Paromomycin_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paromomycin sulfate">Paromomycin</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymyxin_B" title="Polymyxin B">Polymyxin B</a></li>

<li><a href="Rifaximin" title="Rifaximin">Rifaximin</a></li>

<li><a href="Streptomycin" title="Streptomycin">Streptomycin</a></li>

<li><a href="Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">Vancomycin</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Sulfonamides</a>

<ul><li><a href="Phthalylsulfathiazole" title="Phthalylsulfathiazole">Phthalylsulfathiazole</a></li>

<li><a href="Succinylsulfathiazole" title="Succinylsulfathiazole">Succinylsulfathiazole</a></li>

<li><a href="Sulfaguanidine" title="Sulfaguanidine">Sulfaguanidine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Nitrofuran" title="Nitrofuran">Nitrofuran</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nifuroxazide" title="Nifuroxazide">Nifuroxazide</a></li>

<li><a href="Nifurzide" title="Nifurzide">Nifurzide</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Imidazole" title="Imidazole">Imidazole</a>

<ul><li><a href="Miconazole" title="Miconazole">Miconazole</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Arsenical" title="Arsenical">Arsenical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Acetarsol" title="Acetarsol">Acetarsol</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="8-Hydroxyquinoline" title="8-Hydroxyquinoline">Oxyquinoline</a>

<ul><li><a href="Broxyquinoline" title="Broxyquinoline">Broxyquinoline</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intestinal <a href="Adsorbent" class="mw-redirect" title="Adsorbent">adsorbents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Charcoal</a></li>

<li><a href="Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> (including <a href="Bismuth_subsalicylate" title="Bismuth subsalicylate">bismuth subsalicylate</a>, known as Pepto-Bismol)</li>

<li><a href="Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">Kaolin</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyvinylpyrrolidone" title="Polyvinylpyrrolidone">Crospovidone</a></li>

<li><a href="Palygorskite" title="Palygorskite">Attapulgite</a></li>

<li><a href="Diosmectite" title="Diosmectite">Diosmectite</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Antipropulsive" title="Antipropulsive">Antipropulsives</a> (<a href="Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Laudanum" title="Laudanum">Opium tincture</a> (<a href="Laudanum" title="Laudanum">laudanum</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Codeine" title="Codeine">Codeine</a></li>

<li><a href="Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></li>

<li><a href="Paregoric" title="Paregoric">Camphorated opium tincture</a> (paregoric)</li></ul>

<ul><li>crosses <a href="Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">BBB</a>: <a href="Diphenoxylate" title="Diphenoxylate">Diphenoxylate</a> (<a href="Atropine/diphenoxylate" title="Atropine/diphenoxylate">+atropine</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Difenoxin" title="Difenoxin">Difenoxin</a></li></ul>

<ul><li>does not cross BBB: <a href="Eluxadoline" title="Eluxadoline">Eluxadoline</a></li>

<li><a href="Loperamide" title="Loperamide">Loperamide</a># (<a href="Loperamide/simethicone" title="Loperamide/simethicone">+simethicone</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intestinal anti-inflammatory agents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroids</a> acting locally

<ul><li><a href="Prednisolone" title="Prednisolone">Prednisolone</a>#</li>

<li><a href="Cortisol" title="Cortisol">Hydrocortisone</a></li>

<li><a href="Prednisone" title="Prednisone">Prednisone</a></li>

<li><a href="Betamethasone" title="Betamethasone">Betamethasone</a>#</li>

<li><a href="Tixocortol" title="Tixocortol">Tixocortol</a></li>

<li><a href="Budesonide" title="Budesonide">Budesonide</a></li>

<li><a href="Beclometasone_dipropionate" class="mw-redirect" title="Beclometasone dipropionate">Beclometasone</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Antiallergic" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiallergic">antiallergic</a> agents, excluding corticosteroids

<ul><li><a href="Cromoglicic_acid" title="Cromoglicic acid">Cromoglicic acid</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Aminosalicylate" title="Aminosalicylate">Aminosalicylates</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sulfasalazine" title="Sulfasalazine">Sulfasalazine</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesalazine" title="Mesalazine">Mesalazine</a></li>

<li><a href="Olsalazine" title="Olsalazine">Olsalazine</a></li>

<li><a href="Balsalazide" title="Balsalazide">Balsalazide</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antidiarrheal micro-organisms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></li>

<li><a href="Saccharomyces_boulardii" title="Saccharomyces boulardii">Saccharomyces boulardii</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other antidiarrheals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Albumin_tannate" title="Albumin tannate">Albumin tannate</a></li>

<li><a href="Bismuth_subsalicylate" title="Bismuth subsalicylate">Bismuth subsalicylate</a></li>

<li><a href="Carob" title="Carob">Ceratonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Crofelemer" title="Crofelemer">Crofelemer</a></li>

<li><a href="Octreotide" title="Octreotide">Octreotide</a></li>

<li><a href="Racecadotril" title="Racecadotril">Racecadotril</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaopectate" title="Kaopectate">Kaopectate</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist">

<li>‡<a href="List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li>

<li><a href="Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>:

<ul><li>†<a href="Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li>

<li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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